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<title>Geosynchronous orbit</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Geosynchronous orbit</span></span>

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<p>A <b>geosynchronous orbit</b> (sometimes abbreviated <b>GSO</b>) is an Earth-centered <a href="Orbit" title="Orbit">orbit</a> with an <a href="Orbital_period" title="Orbital period">orbital period</a> that matches <a href="Earth's_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">Earth's rotation</a> on its axis, 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds (one <a href="Sidereal_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidereal day">sidereal day</a>). The synchronization of rotation and orbital period means that, for an observer on Earth's surface, an object in geosynchronous orbit returns to exactly the same position in the sky after a period of one sidereal day. Over the course of a day, the object's position in the sky may remain still or trace out a path, <a href="Analemma#Of_geosynchronous_satellites" title="Analemma">typically in a figure-8 form</a>, whose precise characteristics depend on the orbit's <a href="Orbital_inclination" title="Orbital inclination">inclination</a> and <a href="Orbital_eccentricity" title="Orbital eccentricity">eccentricity</a>. A circular geosynchronous orbit has a constant altitude of 35,786 km (22,236 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-sdc20150426_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sdc20150426-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A special case of geosynchronous orbit is the <a href="Geostationary_orbit" title="Geostationary orbit">geostationary orbit</a> (often abbreviated <i>GEO</i>), which is a circular geosynchronous orbit in Earth's <a href="Equatorial_plane" class="mw-redirect" title="Equatorial plane">equatorial plane</a> with both inclination and eccentricity equal to 0. A satellite in a geostationary orbit remains in the same position in the sky to observers on the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-sdc20150426_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sdc20150426-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellites</a> are often given geostationary or close-to-geostationary orbits, so that the <a href="Satellite_antenna" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite antenna">satellite antennas</a> that communicate with them do not have to move but can be pointed permanently at the fixed location in the sky where the satellite appears.<sup id="cite_ref-sdc20150426_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sdc20150426-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>In 1929, <a href="Herman_Poto%C4%8Dnik" title="Herman Potočnik">Herman Potočnik</a> described both geosynchronous orbits in general and the special case of the geostationary Earth orbit in particular as useful orbits for <a href="Space_station" title="Space station">space stations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first appearance of a geosynchronous <a href="Orbit" title="Orbit">orbit</a> in popular literature was in October 1942, in the first <a href="Venus_Equilateral" title="Venus Equilateral">Venus Equilateral</a> story by <a href="George_O._Smith" title="George O. Smith">George O. Smith</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-VE_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VE-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Smith did not go into details. British <a href="Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> author <a href="Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a> popularised and expanded the concept in a 1945 paper entitled <i>Extra-Terrestrial Relays – Can Rocket Stations Give Worldwide Radio Coverage?</i>, published in <i><a href="Wireless_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless World">Wireless World</a></i> magazine. Clarke acknowledged the connection in his introduction to <i>The Complete Venus Equilateral</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-VEintro_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VEintro-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-clarke_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clarke-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The orbit, which Clarke first described as useful for broadcast and relay communications satellites,<sup id="cite_ref-clarke_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clarke-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is sometimes called the Clarke Orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the collection of artificial satellites in this orbit is known as the Clarke Belt.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<p>In technical terminology, the geosynchronous orbits are often referred to as geostationary if they are roughly over the equator, but the terms are used somewhat interchangeably.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, <b>geosynchronous Earth orbit</b> (<b>GEO</b>) may be a synonym for <i>geosynchronous <a href="Near-equatorial_orbit" title="Near-equatorial orbit">equatorial orbit</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <i>geostationary Earth orbit</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA2001_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The first geosynchronous satellite was designed by <a href="Harold_Rosen_(electrical_engineer)" title="Harold Rosen (electrical engineer)">Harold Rosen</a> while he was working at <a href="Hughes_Aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Hughes Aircraft">Hughes Aircraft</a> in 1959. Inspired by <a href="Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a>, he wanted to use a geostationary (geosynchronous equatorial) satellite to globalise communications. Telecommunications between the US and Europe was then possible between just 136 people at a time, and reliant on <a href="High_frequency" title="High frequency">high frequency</a> radios and an <a href="Submarine_communications_cable" title="Submarine communications cable">undersea cable</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dm_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dm-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Conventional wisdom at the time was that it would require too much <a href="Rocket" title="Rocket">rocket</a> power to place a satellite in a geosynchronous orbit and it would not survive long enough to justify the expense,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so early efforts were put towards constellations of satellites in <a href="Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low</a> or <a href="Medium_Earth_Orbit" class="mw-redirect" title="Medium Earth Orbit">medium</a> Earth orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-lat_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lat-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first of these were the passive <a href="Project_Echo" title="Project Echo">Echo balloon satellites</a> in 1960, followed by <a href="Telstar_1" title="Telstar 1">Telstar 1</a> in 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although these projects had difficulties with signal strength and tracking that could be solved through geosynchronous satellites, the concept was seen as impractical, so Hughes often withheld funds and support.<sup id="cite_ref-lat_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lat-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dm_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dm-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>By 1961, Rosen and his team had produced a cylindrical prototype with a diameter of 76 centimetres (30 in), height of 38 centimetres (15 in), weighing 11.3 kilograms (25 lb); it was light, and small, enough to be placed into orbit by then-available rocketry, was <a href="Spin-stabilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Spin-stabilisation">spin stabilised</a> and used dipole antennas producing a pancake-shaped waveform. <sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In August 1961, they were contracted to begin building the working satellite.<sup id="cite_ref-dm_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dm-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They lost <a href="Syncom#Syncom_1" title="Syncom">Syncom 1</a> to electronics failure, but Syncom 2 was successfully placed into a geosynchronous orbit in 1963. Although its <a href="Inclined_orbit" title="Inclined orbit">inclined orbit</a> still required moving antennas, it was able to relay TV transmissions, and allowed for US President <a href="John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> to phone Nigerian prime minister <a href="Abubakar_Tafawa_Balewa" title="Abubakar Tafawa Balewa">Abubakar Tafawa Balewa</a> from a ship on August 23, 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-lat_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lat-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Today there are hundreds of geosynchronous satellites providing <a href="Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a>, navigation and communications.<sup id="cite_ref-dm_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dm-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sdc20150426_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sdc20150426-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Although most populated land locations on the planet now have terrestrial communications facilities (<a href="Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a>, <a href="Fiber-optic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber-optic">fiber-optic</a>), which often have latency and bandwidth advantages, and telephone access covering 96% of the population and internet access 90% as of 2018,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some rural and remote areas in developed countries are still reliant on satellite communications.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geostationary_orbit">Geostationary orbit</h3></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Geostationary_orbit" title="Geostationary orbit">Geostationary orbit</a></div>

<p>A geostationary equatorial orbit (GEO) is a circular geosynchronous orbit in the plane of the Earth's equator with a radius of approximately 42,164 km (26,199 mi) (measured from the center of the Earth).<sup id="cite_ref-smad_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smad-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 156">: 156 </span></sup> A satellite in such an orbit is at an altitude of approximately 35,786 km (22,236 mi) above mean sea level. It maintains the same position relative to the Earth's surface. If one could see a satellite in geostationary orbit, it would appear to hover at the same point in the sky, i.e., not exhibit <a href="Diurnal_motion" title="Diurnal motion">diurnal motion</a>, while the Sun, Moon, and stars would traverse the skies behind it. Such orbits are useful for <a href="Telecommunications_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications satellite">telecommunications satellites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A perfectly stable geostationary orbit is an ideal that can only be approximated. In practice the satellite drifts out of this orbit because of perturbations such as the <a href="Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a>, <a href="Radiation_pressure" title="Radiation pressure">radiation pressure</a>, variations in the Earth's gravitational field, and the <a href="Gravity" title="Gravity">gravitational</a> effect of the <a href="Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> and <a href="Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, and thrusters are used to maintain the orbit in a process known as <a href="Orbital_station-keeping" title="Orbital station-keeping">station-keeping</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-smad_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smad-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 156">: 156 </span></sup>

</p><p>Eventually, without the use of thrusters, the orbit will become inclined, oscillating between 0° and 15° every 55 years. At the end of the satellite's lifetime, when fuel approaches depletion, satellite operators may decide to omit these expensive manoeuvres to correct inclination and only control eccentricity. This prolongs the life-time of the satellite as it consumes less fuel over time, but the satellite can then only be used by ground antennas capable of following the N-S movement.<sup id="cite_ref-smad_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smad-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 156">: 156 </span></sup>

</p><p>Geostationary satellites will also tend to drift around one of two stable longitudes of 75° and 255° without station keeping.<sup id="cite_ref-smad_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smad-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 157">: 157 </span></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elliptical_and_inclined_geosynchronous_orbits">Elliptical and inclined geosynchronous orbits</h3></div>

<p>Many objects in geosynchronous orbits have eccentric and/or inclined orbits. Eccentricity makes the orbit elliptical and appear to oscillate E-W in the sky from the viewpoint of a ground station, while inclination tilts the orbit compared to the equator and makes it appear to oscillate N-S from a groundstation. These effects combine to form an <a href="Analemma" title="Analemma">analemma</a> (figure-8).<sup id="cite_ref-smad_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smad-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 122">: 122 </span></sup>

</p><p>Satellites in elliptical/eccentric orbits must be tracked by steerable <a href="Ground_station" title="Ground station">ground stations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-smad_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smad-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 122">: 122 </span></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tundra_orbit">Tundra orbit</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Tundra_orbit" title="Tundra orbit">Tundra orbit</a></div>

<p>The Tundra orbit is an eccentric geosynchronous orbit, which allows the satellite to spend most of its time dwelling over one high latitude location. It sits at an inclination of 63.4°, which is a <a href="Frozen_orbit" title="Frozen orbit">frozen orbit</a>, which reduces the need for <a href="Orbital_station-keeping" title="Orbital station-keeping">stationkeeping</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-scs_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scs-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least two satellites are needed to provide continuous coverage over an area.<sup id="cite_ref-jenkin_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jenkin-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was used by the <a href="Sirius_XM_Satellite_Radio" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirius XM Satellite Radio">Sirius XM Satellite Radio</a> to improve signal strength in the northern US and Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-Sirius_Launch_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sirius_Launch-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quasi-zenith_orbit">Quasi-zenith orbit</h4></div>

<p>The <a href="Quasi-Zenith_Satellite_System" title="Quasi-Zenith Satellite System">Quasi-Zenith Satellite System</a> (QZSS) is a four-satellite system that operates in a geosynchronous orbit at an inclination of 42° and a 0.075 eccentricity.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each satellite dwells over <a href="Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, allowing signals to reach receivers in <a href="Urban_canyons" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban canyons">urban canyons</a>, then passes quickly over Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Launch">Launch</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Geostationary_transfer_orbit" title="Geostationary transfer orbit">Geostationary transfer orbit</a></div>

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</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">An example of a transition from Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO) to Geosynchronous Orbit (GSO):<br><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">

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</style><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="forced-color-adjust: none; background-color:magenta; color:black;"> </span> <a href="EchoStar_XVII" title="EchoStar XVII">EchoStar XVII</a></span> <b>·</b> <span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="forced-color-adjust: none; background-color:RoyalBlue; color:white;"> </span> <a href="Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></span>.</div></div></div></div>

<p>Geosynchronous satellites are launched to the east into a prograde orbit that matches the rotation rate of the equator. The smallest inclination that a satellite can be launched into is that of the launch site's latitude, so launching the satellite from close to the equator limits the amount of <a href="Orbital_inclination_change" title="Orbital inclination change">inclination change</a> needed later.<sup id="cite_ref-conf_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conf-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, launching from close to the equator allows the speed of the Earth's rotation to give the satellite a boost. A launch site should have water or deserts to the east, so any failed rockets do not fall on a populated area.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Most <a href="Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">launch vehicles</a> place geosynchronous satellites directly into a <a href="Geosynchronous_transfer_orbit" class="mw-redirect" title="Geosynchronous transfer orbit">geosynchronous transfer orbit</a> (GTO), an elliptical orbit with an <a href="Apsis" title="Apsis">apogee</a> at GSO height and a low <a href="Apsis" title="Apsis">perigee</a>. On-board satellite propulsion is then used to raise the perigee, circularise and reach GSO.<sup id="cite_ref-conf_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conf-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Once in a viable geostationary orbit, spacecraft can change their longitudinal position by adjusting their semi-major axis such that the new period is shorter or longer than a sidereal day, in order to effect an apparent "drift" Eastward or Westward, respectively. Once at the desired longitude, the spacecraft's period is restored to geosynchronous.<sup id="cite_ref-satsig-repo-gso_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-satsig-repo-gso-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proposed_orbits">Proposed orbits</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Statite_proposal">Statite proposal</h3></div>

<p>A <a href="Statite" title="Statite">statite</a> is a hypothetical satellite that uses <a href="Radiation_pressure#Solar_radiation_pressure" title="Radiation pressure">radiation pressure</a> from the Sun against a <a href="Solar_sail" title="Solar sail">solar sail</a> to modify its orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-st_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-st-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>It would hold its location over the dark side of the Earth at a latitude of approximately 30 degrees. It would return to the same spot in the sky every 24 hours from an Earth-based viewer's perspective, so be functionally similar to a geosynchronous orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-st_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-st-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_elevator">Space elevator</h3></div>

<p>A further form of geosynchronous orbit is the theoretical <a href="Space_elevator" title="Space elevator">space elevator</a>. If a mass orbiting above the geostationary belt is tethered to the earth’s surface, and the mass is accelerated to maintain an orbital period equal to one sidereal day, then since the orbit now requires more downward force than is supplied by gravity alone the tether will become tensioned by the extra centripetal force required, and this tension will keep the tether structure stable as a crawler carries objects up/down along it.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Retired_satellites">Retired satellites</h2></div>

<p>Geosynchronous satellites require some <a href="Orbital_station-keeping" title="Orbital station-keeping">station-keeping</a> in order to remain in position, and once they run out of thruster fuel and are no longer useful they are moved into a higher <a href="Graveyard_orbit" title="Graveyard orbit">graveyard orbit</a>. It is not feasible to deorbit geosynchronous satellites, for to do so would take far more fuel than would be used by slightly elevating the orbit; and atmospheric drag is negligible, giving GSOs lifetimes of thousands of years.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The retirement process is becoming increasingly regulated and satellites must have a 90% chance of moving over 200 km above the geostationary belt at end of life.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_debris">Space debris</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Space_debris#Characterization" title="Space debris">Space debris § Characterization</a></div>

<p>Space debris in geosynchronous orbits typically has a lower collision speed than at LEO since most GSO satellites orbit in the same plane, altitude and speed; however, the presence of satellites in <a href="Eccentric_orbit" class="mw-redirect" title="Eccentric orbit">eccentric orbits</a> allows for collisions at up to 4 km/s. Although a collision is comparatively unlikely, GSO satellites have a limited ability to avoid any debris.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Debris less than 10 cm in diameter cannot be seen from the Earth, making it difficult to assess their prevalence.<sup id="cite_ref-telk1_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-telk1-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Despite efforts to reduce risk, spacecraft collisions have occurred. The <a href="European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> telecom satellite <a href="Olympus-1" title="Olympus-1">Olympus-1</a> was struck by a <a href="Meteoroid" title="Meteoroid">meteoroid</a> on August 11, 1993, and eventually moved to a <a href="Graveyard_orbit" title="Graveyard orbit">graveyard orbit</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-The_Olympus_failure_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Olympus_failure-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 2006 the Russian <a href="Express_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Express (satellite)">Express-AM11</a> communications satellite was struck by an unknown object and rendered inoperable,<sup id="cite_ref-srdc20060419_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-srdc20060419-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although its engineers had enough contact time with the satellite to send it into a graveyard orbit. In 2017 both <a href="AMC-9" title="AMC-9">AMC-9</a> and <a href="Telkom-1" title="Telkom-1">Telkom-1</a> broke apart from an unknown cause.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-telk1_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-telk1-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2></div>

<p>A geosynchronous orbit has the following properties:

</p>

<ul><li>Period: 1436 minutes (one <a href="Sidereal_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidereal day">sidereal day</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes#Astronomy" title="Semi-major and semi-minor axes">Semi-major axis</a>: 42,164 km<sup id="cite_ref-smad_21-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smad-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 121">: 121 </span></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Period">Period</h3></div>

<p>All geosynchronous orbits have an orbital period equal to exactly one sidereal day.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that the satellite will return to the same point above the Earth's surface every (sidereal) day, regardless of other orbital properties.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-smad_21-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smad-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 121">: 121 </span></sup> This orbital period, T, is directly related to the semi-major axis of the orbit through the formula:

</p>

<msqrt>

<mfrac>

<msup>

</mrow>

</msup>

</mfrac>

</msqrt>

</mrow>

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T=2\pi {\sqrt {a^{3} \over \mu }}}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math></span><img src="./1385eed5863f0e40f86905c95cd3d4af7788ce9e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:12.673ex; height:7.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T=2\pi {\sqrt {a^{3} \over \mu }}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>

<p>where:

</p>

<dl><dd><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">a</span> is the length of the orbit's semi-major axis</dd>

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu }</annotation>

</semantics>

</math></span><img src="./9fd47b2a39f7a7856952afec1f1db72c67af6161.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.402ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu }" loading="lazy"></span> is the <a href="Standard_gravitational_parameter" title="Standard gravitational parameter">standard gravitational parameter</a> of the central body<sup id="cite_ref-smad_21-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smad-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 137">: 137 </span></sup></dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inclination">Inclination</h3></div>

<p>A geosynchronous orbit can have any inclination.

</p><p>Satellites commonly have an inclination of zero, ensuring that the orbit remains over the equator at all times, making it stationary with respect to latitude from the point of view of a ground observer (and in the <a href="ECEF" class="mw-redirect" title="ECEF">ECEF</a> reference frame).<sup id="cite_ref-smad_21-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smad-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 122">: 122 </span></sup>

</p><p>Another popular inclinations is 63.4° for a Tundra orbit, which ensures that the orbit's <a href="Argument_of_perigee" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument of perigee">argument of perigee</a> does not change over time.<sup id="cite_ref-scs_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scs-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ground_track">Ground track</h3></div>

<p>In the special case of a geostationary orbit, the <a href="Ground_track" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground track">ground track</a> of a satellite is a single point on the <a href="Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>. In the general case of a geosynchronous orbit with a non-zero <a href="Inclination" class="mw-redirect" title="Inclination">inclination</a> or <a href="Eccentricity_(orbit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eccentricity (orbit)">eccentricity</a>, the ground track is a more or less distorted figure-eight, returning to the same places once per sidereal day.<sup id="cite_ref-smad_21-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smad-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 122">: 122 </span></sup>

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Geostationary_orbit" title="Geostationary orbit">Geostationary orbit</a></li>

<li><a href="Geosynchronous_satellite" title="Geosynchronous satellite">Geosynchronous satellite</a></li>

<li><a href="Graveyard_orbit" title="Graveyard orbit">Graveyard orbit</a></li>

<li><a href="High_Earth_orbit" title="High Earth orbit">High Earth orbit</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_orbits" title="List of orbits">List of orbits</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_satellites_in_geosynchronous_orbit" title="List of satellites in geosynchronous orbit">List of satellites in geosynchronous orbit</a></li>

<li><a href="Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">Low Earth orbit</a></li>

<li><a href="Medium_Earth_orbit" title="Medium Earth orbit">Medium Earth orbit</a></li>

<li><a href="Molniya_orbit" title="Molniya orbit">Molniya orbit</a></li>

<li><a href="Subsynchronous_orbit" title="Subsynchronous orbit">Subsynchronous orbit</a></li>

<li><a href="Supersynchronous_orbit" title="Supersynchronous orbit">Supersynchronous orbit</a></li>

<li><a href="Synchronous_orbit" title="Synchronous orbit">Synchronous orbit</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFHowell" class="citation news cs1">Howell, Elizabeth. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.space.com/29222-geosynchronous-orbit.html">"What Is a Geosynchronous Orbit?"</a>. <i>Space.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 15,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-VEintro-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VEintro_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"It is therefore quite possible that these stories influenced me subconsciously when ... I worked out the principles of synchronous communications satellites ...", <cite id="CITEREFMcAleer1992" class="citation book cs1">McAleer, Neil (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arthurcclarkeaut00mcal/page/54"><i>Arthur C. Clarke</i></a>. Contemporary Books. p. 54. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-809-24324-2</bdi>.</cite></span>

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</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131019171701/http://www.zarya.info/Diaries/Launches/geo-loc.php">Satellites currently in Geosynchronous Orbit, list updated daily</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050821080635/http://science.nasa.gov/realtime/rocket_sci/satellites/geo-high.html">Science@NASA – Geosynchronous Orbit</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf5-1.php">NASA – Planetary Orbits</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041104195134/http://www.sciencepresse.qc.ca/clafleur/Scfam-geostationary.html">Science Presse data on Geosynchronous Orbits (including historical data and launch statistics)</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120204054322/http://www.braeunig.us/space/orbmech.htm">Orbital Mechanics</a> (Rocket and Space Technology)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap120411.html">NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day: Time lapse of Geostationary Satellites Beyond the Alps (11 April 2012)</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Gravitational_orbits256" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Gravitational <a href="Orbit" title="Orbit">orbits</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_orbits" title="List of orbits">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Parabolic_trajectory" title="Parabolic trajectory">Capture</a></li>

<li><a href="Circular_orbit" title="Circular orbit">Circular</a></li>

<li><a href="Elliptic_orbit" title="Elliptic orbit">Elliptical</a> / <a href="Highly_elliptical_orbit" title="Highly elliptical orbit">Highly elliptical</a></li>

<li><a href="Parabolic_trajectory" title="Parabolic trajectory">Escape</a></li>

<li><a href="Horseshoe_orbit" title="Horseshoe orbit">Horseshoe</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperbolic_trajectory" title="Hyperbolic trajectory">Hyperbolic trajectory</a></li>

<li><a href="Inclined_orbit" title="Inclined orbit">Inclined</a> / <a href="Non-inclined_orbit" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-inclined orbit">Non-inclined</a></li>

<li><a href="Kepler_orbit" title="Kepler orbit">Kepler</a></li>

<li><a href="Lagrange_point" title="Lagrange point">Lagrange point</a></li>

<li><a href="Osculating_orbit" title="Osculating orbit">Osculating</a></li>

<li><a href="Parabolic_trajectory" title="Parabolic trajectory">Parabolic trajectory</a></li>

<li><a href="Parking_orbit" title="Parking orbit">Parking</a></li>

<li><a href="Retrograde_and_prograde_motion" title="Retrograde and prograde motion">Prograde / Retrograde</a></li>

<li><a href="Synchronous_orbit" title="Synchronous orbit">Synchronous</a>

<li><a href="Hohmann_transfer_orbit" title="Hohmann transfer orbit">Transfer orbit</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Geocentric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Geostationary_orbit" title="Geostationary orbit">Geostationary</a></li>

<li><a href="Geostationary_transfer_orbit" title="Geostationary transfer orbit">Geostationary transfer</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Graveyard_orbit" title="Graveyard orbit">Graveyard</a></li>

<li><a href="High_Earth_orbit" title="High Earth orbit">High Earth</a></li>

<li><a href="Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">Low Earth</a></li>

<li><a href="Medium_Earth_orbit" title="Medium Earth orbit">Medium Earth</a></li>

<li><a href="Molniya_orbit" title="Molniya orbit">Molniya</a></li>

<li><a href="Near-equatorial_orbit" title="Near-equatorial orbit">Near-equatorial</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbit_of_the_Moon" title="Orbit of the Moon">Orbit of the Moon</a></li>

<li><a href="Polar_orbit" title="Polar orbit">Polar</a></li>

<li><a href="Sun-synchronous_orbit" title="Sun-synchronous orbit">Sun-synchronous</a></li>

<li><a href="Transatmospheric_orbit" title="Transatmospheric orbit">Transatmospheric</a></li>

<li><a href="Tundra_orbit" title="Tundra orbit">Tundra</a></li>

<li><a href="Very_low_Earth_orbit" title="Very low Earth orbit">Very low Earth</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">About<br>other points</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Mars

<ul><li><a href="Areocentric_orbit" title="Areocentric orbit">Areocentric</a></li>

<li><a href="Areosynchronous_orbit" title="Areosynchronous orbit">Areosynchronous</a></li>

<li><a href="Areostationary_orbit" title="Areostationary orbit">Areostationary</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Lagrange points

<ul><li><a href="Distant_retrograde_orbit" title="Distant retrograde orbit">Distant retrograde</a></li>

<li><a href="Lissajous_orbit" title="Lissajous orbit">Lissajous</a></li>

<li><a href="Libration_point_orbit" title="Libration point orbit">Libration</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Lunar_orbit" title="Lunar orbit">Lunar</a></li>

<li>Sun

<ul><li><a href="Heliocentric_orbit" title="Heliocentric orbit">Heliocentric</a>

<ul><li><a href="Earth's_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbit</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mars_cycler" title="Mars cycler">Mars cycler</a></li>

<li><a href="Sun-synchronous_orbit" title="Sun-synchronous orbit">Heliosynchronous</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Other

<ul><li><a href="Lunar_cycler" title="Lunar cycler">Lunar cycler</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Orbital_elements" title="Orbital elements">Parameters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Shape</li><li>Size</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">e</span>  <a href="Orbital_eccentricity" title="Orbital eccentricity">Eccentricity</a></li>

<li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">a</span>  <a href="Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes" title="Semi-major and semi-minor axes">Semi-major axis</a></li>

<li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">b</span>  <a href="Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes" title="Semi-major and semi-minor axes">Semi-minor axis</a></li>

<li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">Q</span>, <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">q</span>  <a href="Apsis" title="Apsis">Apsides</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Orientation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">i</span>  <a href="Orbital_inclination" title="Orbital inclination">Inclination</a></li>

<li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">Ω</span>  <a href="Longitude_of_the_ascending_node" title="Longitude of the ascending node">Longitude of the ascending node</a></li>

<li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">ω</span>  <a href="Argument_of_periapsis" title="Argument of periapsis">Argument of periapsis</a></li>

<li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">ϖ</span>  <a href="Longitude_of_the_periapsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Longitude of the periapsis">Longitude of the periapsis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Position</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">M</span>  <a href="Mean_anomaly" title="Mean anomaly">Mean anomaly</a></li>

<li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">ν</span>, <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">θ</span>, <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">f</span>  <a href="True_anomaly" title="True anomaly">True anomaly</a></li>

<li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">E</span>  <a href="Eccentric_anomaly" title="Eccentric anomaly">Eccentric anomaly</a></li>

<li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">L</span>  <a href="Mean_longitude" title="Mean longitude">Mean longitude</a></li>

<li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">l</span>  <a href="True_longitude" title="True longitude">True longitude</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Variation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">T</span>  <a href="Orbital_period" title="Orbital period">Orbital period</a></li>

<li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">n</span>  <a href="Mean_motion" title="Mean motion">Mean motion</a></li>

<li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">v</span>  <a href="Orbital_speed" title="Orbital speed">Orbital speed</a></li>

<li><span class="texhtml"><i>t</i><sub>0</sub></span>  <a href="Epoch_(astronomy)" title="Epoch (astronomy)">Epoch</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Orbital_maneuver" title="Orbital maneuver">Maneuvers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bi-elliptic_transfer" title="Bi-elliptic transfer">Bi-elliptic transfer</a></li>

<li><a href="Collision_avoidance_(spacecraft)" title="Collision avoidance (spacecraft)">Collision avoidance (spacecraft)</a></li>

<li><a href="Delta-v" title="Delta-v">Delta-v</a></li>

<li><a href="Delta-v_budget" title="Delta-v budget">Delta-v budget</a></li>

<li><a href="Gravity_assist" title="Gravity assist">Gravity assist</a></li>

<li><a href="Gravity_turn" title="Gravity turn">Gravity turn</a></li>

<li><a href="Hohmann_transfer_orbit" title="Hohmann transfer orbit">Hohmann transfer</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbital_inclination_change" title="Orbital inclination change">Inclination change</a></li>

<li><a href="Low-energy_transfer" title="Low-energy transfer">Low-energy transfer</a></li>

<li><a href="Oberth_effect" title="Oberth effect">Oberth effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbit_phasing" title="Orbit phasing">Phasing</a></li>

<li><a href="Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation" title="Tsiolkovsky rocket equation">Rocket equation</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_rendezvous" title="Space rendezvous">Rendezvous</a></li>

<li><a href="Trans-lunar_injection" title="Trans-lunar injection">Trans-lunar injection</a></li>

<li><a href="Transposition%2C_docking%2C_and_extraction" title="Transposition, docking, and extraction">Transposition, docking, and extraction</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Orbital_mechanics" title="Orbital mechanics">Orbital<br>mechanics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Astronomical_coordinate_systems" title="Astronomical coordinate systems">Astronomical coordinate systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Characteristic_energy" title="Characteristic energy">Characteristic energy</a></li>

<li><a href="Escape_velocity" title="Escape velocity">Escape velocity</a></li>

<li><a href="Ephemeris" title="Ephemeris">Ephemeris</a></li>

<li><a href="Equatorial_coordinate_system" title="Equatorial coordinate system">Equatorial coordinate system</a></li>

<li><a href="Ground_track" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground track">Ground track</a></li>

<li><a href="Hill_sphere" title="Hill sphere">Hill sphere</a></li>

<li><a href="Interplanetary_Transport_Network" title="Interplanetary Transport Network">Interplanetary Transport Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion" title="Kepler's laws of planetary motion">Kepler's laws of planetary motion</a></li>

<li><a href="Kozai_mechanism" title="Kozai mechanism">Kozai mechanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Lagrange_point" title="Lagrange point">Lagrangian point</a></li>

<li><a href="N-body_problem" title="N-body problem"><i>n</i>-body problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbit_equation" title="Orbit equation">Orbit equation</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbital_state_vectors" title="Orbital state vectors">Orbital state vectors</a></li>

<li><a href="Perturbation_(astronomy)" title="Perturbation (astronomy)">Perturbation</a></li>

<li><a href="Retrograde_and_prograde_motion" title="Retrograde and prograde motion">Retrograde and prograde motion</a></li>

<li><a href="Specific_orbital_energy" title="Specific orbital energy">Specific orbital energy</a></li>

<li><a href="Specific_angular_momentum" title="Specific angular momentum">Specific angular momentum</a></li>

<li><a href="Two-line_element_set" title="Two-line element set">Two-line elements</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"></span></span> <a href="List_of_orbits" title="List of orbits">List of orbits</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ring_systems196" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Ring_systems196" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Ring_system" title="Ring system">Ring systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Planet" title="Planet">Planets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Rings_of_Jupiter" title="Rings of Jupiter">Rings of Jupiter</a></li>

<li><a href="Rings_of_Saturn" title="Rings of Saturn">Rings of Saturn</a></li>

<li><a href="Rings_of_Uranus" title="Rings of Uranus">Rings of Uranus</a></li>

<li><a href="Rings_of_Neptune" title="Rings of Neptune">Rings of Neptune</a></li>

<li><a href="Ring_system#Rings_around_exoplanets" title="Ring system">Exoplanetary rings</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Minor_planet" title="Minor planet">Minor planets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Rings_of_Chariklo" title="Rings of Chariklo">Rings of Chariklo</a></li>

<li><a href="2060_Chiron#Rings" title="2060 Chiron">Rings of Chiron</a></li>

<li><a href="Rings_of_Haumea" class="mw-redirect" title="Rings of Haumea">Ring of Haumea</a></li>

<li><a href="Quaoar#Rings" title="Quaoar">Rings of Quaoar</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">Moons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Rings_of_Rhea" title="Rings of Rhea">Rings of Rhea</a> (unconfirmed)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Accretion_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Accretion disc">Accretion disc</a></li>

<li><a href="Gas_torus" title="Gas torus">Gas torus</a></li>

<li><a href="Circumstellar_disc" title="Circumstellar disc">Circumstellar disc</a></li>

<li><a href="Circumplanetary_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumplanetary disc">Circumplanetary disc</a></li>

<li><a href="Rings_of_Earth" title="Rings of Earth">Proposed rings of Earth</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spaceflight370" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Spaceflight370" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Orbital_mechanics" title="Orbital mechanics">Astrodynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_spaceflight" title="History of spaceflight">History</a>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_spaceflight" title="Timeline of spaceflight">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_spaceflight_records" title="List of spaceflight records">Records</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">Accidents and incidents</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Space_launch" title="Space launch">Space launch</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_policy" title="Space policy">Space policy</a>

<ul><li>Australia</li>

<li><a href="Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">China</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Space_Agency_Science_Programme" title="European Space Agency Science Programme">European Space Agency</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Union_Space_Programme" title="European Union Space Programme">European Union</a></li>

<li><a href="ISRO" title="ISRO">India</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_space_program" title="Japanese space program">Japan</a></li>

<li><a href="North_Korean_space_program" title="North Korean space program">North Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="South_Korean_space_program" title="South Korean space program">South Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Space policy of the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a>

<ul><li><a href="Outer_Space_Treaty" title="Outer Space Treaty">Outer Space Treaty</a></li>

<li><a href="Rescue_Agreement" title="Rescue Agreement">Rescue Agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Liability_Convention" title="Space Liability Convention">Space Liability Convention</a></li>

<li><a href="Registration_Convention" title="Registration Convention">Registration Convention</a></li>

<li><a href="Moon_Treaty" title="Moon Treaty">Moon Treaty</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space warfare</a>

<ul><li><a href="Space_command" title="Space command">Space command</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li>

<li><a href="Militarisation_of_space" title="Militarisation of space">Militarisation of space</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Private_spaceflight" title="Private spaceflight">Private spaceflight</a>

<ul><li><a href="Billionaire_space_race" title="Billionaire space race">Billionaire space race</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="Outline_of_space_science" title="Outline of space science">Applications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Earth_observation_satellite" title="Earth observation satellite">Earth observation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Remote_sensing_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote sensing (archaeology)">Archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">Imagery and mapping</a></li>

<li><a href="Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">Reconnaissance</a></li>

<li><a href="Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">Weather and environment monitoring</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a>

<ul><li><a href="Satellite_Internet_access" title="Satellite Internet access">Internet</a></li>

<li><a href="Satellite_radio" title="Satellite radio">Radio</a></li>

<li><a href="Satellite_phone" title="Satellite phone">Telephone</a></li>

<li><a href="Satellite_television" title="Satellite television">Television</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Satellite navigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Commercial_use_of_space" title="Commercial use of space">Commercial use of space</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_launch_market_competition" title="Space launch market competition">Space launch market competition</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_architecture" title="Space architecture">Space architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Space exploration</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_research" title="Space research">Space research</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_technology" title="Space technology">Space technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">Human spaceflight</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Astronaut" title="Astronaut">Astronaut</a>

<ul><li><a href="Commercial_astronaut" title="Commercial astronaut">commercial</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Life-support_system" title="Life-support system">Life-support system</a>

<ul><li><a href="Animals_in_space" title="Animals in space">Animals in space</a></li>

<li><a href="Bioastronautics" title="Bioastronautics">Bioastronautics</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_suit" title="Space suit">Space suit</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">Extravehicular activity</a></li>

<li><a href="Overview_effect" title="Overview effect">Overview effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">Weightlessness</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_toilet" title="Space toilet">Space toilet</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">Space tourism</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Space colonization</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_diving" title="Space diving">Space diving</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a></li>

<li><a href="Voskhod_programme" title="Voskhod programme">Voskhod</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a></li>

<li><a href="Soyuz_programme" title="Soyuz programme">Soyuz</a></li>

<li><a href="Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a>

<ul><li><a href="Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a></li>

<li><a href="Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz" title="Apollo–Soyuz">Apollo–Soyuz</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program" title="Shuttle–Mir program">Shuttle–Mir</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a></li>

<li><a href="China_Manned_Space_Program" title="China Manned Space Program">Shenzhou</a></li>

<li><a href="Tiangong_program" title="Tiangong program">Tiangong</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Shepard" title="New Shepard">New Shepard</a></li>

<li><a href="Artemis_program" title="Artemis program">Artemis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Health issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a>

<ul><li><a href="Space_adaptation_syndrome" title="Space adaptation syndrome">Space adaptation syndrome</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Space psychology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Psychological_and_sociological_effects_of_spaceflight" title="Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight">Psychological and sociological effects</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Space_and_survival" title="Space and survival">Space and survival</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Space medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_nursing" title="Space nursing">Space nursing</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_sexology" title="Space sexology">Space sexology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">Spacecraft</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">Launch vehicle</a></li>

<li><a href="Rocket" title="Rocket">Rocket</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_capsule" title="Space capsule">Space capsule</a>

<ul><li><a href="Orbital_module" title="Orbital module">Orbital module</a></li>

<li><a href="Reentry_capsule" title="Reentry capsule">Reentry capsule</a></li>

<li><a href="Service_module" title="Service module">Service module</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">Spaceplane</a></li>

<li><a href="Robotic_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic spacecraft</a>

<ul><li><a href="Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Space probe">Space probe</a></li>

<li><a href="Lander_(spacecraft)" title="Lander (spacecraft)">Lander</a></li>

<li><a href="Rover_(space_exploration)" title="Rover (space exploration)">Rover</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-replicating_spacecraft" title="Self-replicating spacecraft">Self-replicating spacecraft</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescope</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Spacecraft_propulsion" title="Spacecraft propulsion">Spacecraft propulsion</a>

<ul><li><a href="Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">Rocket engine</a></li>

<li><a href="Spacecraft_electric_propulsion" title="Spacecraft electric propulsion">Electric propulsion</a></li>

<li><a href="Solar_sail" title="Solar sail">Solar sail</a></li>

<li><a href="Gravity_assist" title="Gravity assist">Gravity assist</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Destinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sub-orbital_spaceflight" title="Sub-orbital spaceflight">Sub-orbital</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbital_spaceflight" title="Orbital spaceflight">Orbital</a>

<ul><li><a href="Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Geocentric</a></li>

</ul></li>

<li><a href="Interplanetary_spaceflight" title="Interplanetary spaceflight">Interplanetary</a></li>

<li><a href="Interstellar_travel" title="Interstellar travel">Interstellar</a></li>

<li><a href="Intergalactic_travel" title="Intergalactic travel">Intergalactic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="Space_launch" title="Space launch">Space launch</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Direct_ascent" title="Direct ascent">Direct ascent</a></li>

<li><a href="Escape_velocity" title="Escape velocity">Escape velocity</a></li>

<li><a href="Expendable_launch_system" title="Expendable launch system">Expendable</a> and <a href="Reusable_launch_vehicle" title="Reusable launch vehicle">reusable launch systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Launch_pad" title="Launch pad">Launch pad</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-rocket_spacelaunch" title="Non-rocket spacelaunch">Non-rocket spacelaunch</a></li>

<li><a href="Spaceport" title="Spaceport">Spaceport</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="Ground_segment" title="Ground segment">Ground segment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Flight_controller" title="Flight controller">Flight controller</a></li>

<li><a href="Ground_station" title="Ground station">Ground station</a></li>

<li><a href="Mission_control_center" title="Mission control center">Mission control center</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div>

<ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <a href="Portal%3ASpaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Portal</a></li></ul>

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This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-06-04" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Geosynchronous_orbit&oldid=1293915819">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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